New Beginnings: Cities and States
This chapter of the Class 7 NCERT social science textbook, Exploring Society: India and Beyond, traces the rise of new cities and states in early Indian history. Learners meet mahajanapadas such as Magadha and Kosala, compare republics with kingdoms, and follow trade routes that made towns prosper. The chapter explains fortification, taxation and administration, shows how Buddhism and Jainism questioned old orders, and describes how empire-builders laid the groundwork for larger states to come.
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